For my revised research topic, I plan to analyze the cosmological ideas of late medieval Europeans and the Inca pre-contact, focusing on how these peoples interpreted the universe. This subject is important because it highlights the ways in which people from different parts of the globe attempted to order the universe, demonstrating that all humans—even those whom Europeans considered to be different and separate from their own society—contemplate about the universe and their place within it. No matter their culture, the universe was something that many people thought about, yet Europeans considered their own perspectives and modes of understanding to be superior to those of the Inca. This demonstrates the Eurocentric worldview of Europeans both pre- and post-contact

Primary sources:

1. Bernabe Cobo’s History of the Inca Empire, translated by Roland Hamilton. This is a Spanish Jesuit’s perspective on Incan culture from the seventeenth century, which therefore reflects a colonial point of view.
2. Artistotle’s On the Heavens, a text that was written around 350 BC. Aristotle’s ideas about the universe provided an extensive foundation for later medieval European cosmology.

Secondary sources:

1. Clive Ruggels – Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth
2. Bryan E. Penprase – The Power of Stars
3. Edward Grant – “The Medieval Cosmos: Its Structure and Operation”
4. Susan Elizabeth – To Feed and Be Fed: The Cosmological Bases of Authority and Identity in the Andes
5. Johan Reinhard – Machu Picchu: Exploring an Ancient Sacred Center
6. Anthony F. Aveni – Stairways to the Stars: Skywatching in Three Great Ancient Cultures

One potential research question I am interested in is as follows: What were the primary modes of thought in the late Middle Ages and how were non-European peoples and places described in literature?

This question is important because it allows us to learn about the worldview of Europeans in the Middle Ages, how they perceived the world around them, and how this perspective may have developed or changed over time. Furthermore, it can help us to identify the preconceived notions that Europeans had about the New World pre-contact. I think that, by looking at European modes of thought, we can better comprehend why they took certain actions and believed certain things about the world beyond Europe. It is also important to know what ideas people chose to write down versus those that they decided not to mention. Ultimately, all of these concepts may allow us to more easily track the European mindset, beliefs, and intentions post-contact.

One historical event I am interested in learning more about is the Túpac Amaru Rebellion that occurred in Peru in the late eighteenth century. I took an interest in this rebellion last spring, after it was discussed in Dr. Welsch’s History 201 course Rulers & Rebels in European Empires. I would love to investigate this event more deeply because Túpac Amaru II, despite his upper-class position in society, helped to spark an uprising against Spain. I am also interested in looking at the high levels of both colonial and rebel violence during this time. Overall, I am curious about the motivations of various people that were involved and — after learning more about this event — I hope to identify parallels between the actions, reactions, and incentives of the Túpac Amaru Rebellion and other uprisings that have occurred in Latin America.

Another idea I am interested in exploring is how indigenous peoples were represented in written texts, especially those from the late medieval period. I found the first chapter of Anthony Grafton’s New Worlds, Ancient Texts: The Power of Tradition and the Shock of Discovery to be fascinating because I love learning about the Middle Ages. Furthermore, Grafton’s discussion of scholarly perspectives piqued my interest, so that I now wish to learn more about this topic. Ultimately, I would love to learn more about medieval perspectives as they are presented within a variety of written works.